Michel Foucault's "The History of Sexuality: An Introduction" (1976)
Foucault argues against the claim that the history of sexuality is rooted in repression of sexuality and that sexuality progressed from the 18th century onwards. He analyzes women, children, marriage, and homosexuality, which allows for society to empower one another, especially within family dynamics. He talks of the bourgeoisie and how their fear of sexual deviance allowed them to control society’s sexuality for the survival of the upper-class. He believes sexuality is merely a tool used by those in power to control those without.
Power Dynamics: Foucault argues that discourses surrounding sexuality are deeply intertwined with power structures within society. He suggests that power operates not only through explicit forms of repression but also through the regulation and control of knowledge about sexuality. This implies that those in positions of power dictate what is considered acceptable or taboo in terms of sexual expression, shaping societal norms accordingly.
Repression Hypothesis Critique: Foucault challenges the idea that Western societies have become progressively more sexually liberated over time, as suggested by the "repression hypothesis." Instead, he proposes that discourses about sexuality have become increasingly pervasive and sophisticated, leading to more nuanced forms of control and regulation. This challenges the notion of a linear progression towards greater sexual freedom and questions the underlying power dynamics at play in shaping sexual norms.
Normalization and Discipline: Foucault introduces the concept of "biopower" to describe the ways in which modern societies regulate populations through mechanisms of normalization and discipline. He argues that discourses about sexuality are central to these processes, as they help to define what is considered "normal" or "deviant" within society. This normalization of sexual behavior serves to maintain social order and control, reinforcing existing power structures.
Historical Context: Foucault emphasizes the historical contingency of discourses surrounding sexuality, highlighting how they have evolved over time in response to changing social, political, and economic conditions. By examining historical shifts in attitudes towards sexuality, Foucault reveals the constructed nature of sexual norms and challenges the idea of a fixed, universal human nature.
Critique of Freudian Psychoanalysis: Foucault offers a critique of Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly Freud's emphasis on the repressive role of the family and the Oedipus complex in shaping sexual identity. He argues that psychoanalytic theories pathologize certain forms of sexual behavior, reinforcing existing power dynamics and perpetuating a limited understanding of human sexuality.
The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction (archive.org)
Foucault, Michel: Feminism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (utm.edu)
Lillian Faderman's "Chloe Plus Olivia: An Anthology of Lesbian Literature from the Seventeenth Century to the Present" (1994)
The name of her anthology comes from "A Room of One’s Own" by Virginia Woolf:
Dr. Faderman includes six categories of lesbians:
- Kindred spirits: the literature of romantic friendship
- A man trapped in a woman’s body: the literature of sexual inversion
- Carnivorous flowers: the literature of exotic and evil lesbians
- In the closet: the literature of lesbian encoding
- Amazons: the literature of lesbian feminism
- Flowerings: post-lesbian-feminist literature
Scope and Organization: Faderman's anthology spans from the 17th century to the contemporary era, providing a wide-ranging selection of literary works that explore various aspects of lesbian identity, relationships, and desires. The anthology is organized chronologically, allowing readers to trace the evolution of representations of lesbianism over time.
Diversity of Voices: Faderman includes works by a diverse array of authors, representing different time periods, cultures, and literary styles. The anthology features writings by both well-known authors and lesser-known voices, offering a multifaceted view of lesbian experiences and perspectives.
Themes and Motifs: Faderman identifies recurring themes and motifs in the literature of lesbianism, such as the challenges of navigating same-sex desire in a heteronormative society, the complexities of identity formation, and the importance of community and solidarity among queer women. She explores how these themes manifest across different literary genres and historical contexts.
Historical Context: Faderman provides historical context for each selection, offering insights into the social, cultural, and political conditions that shaped attitudes towards lesbianism at different points in history. She discusses the ways in which societal norms and expectations influenced the portrayal of lesbian relationships and identities in literature.
Legacy: Faderman's anthology highlights the representations of lesbianism, tracing the influence of earlier works on subsequent writers and cultural movements. She examines how representations of lesbian experiences in literature have both reflected and contributed to broader cultural conversations about sexuality, gender, and identity.
The ‘Mother of Lesbian History’ Looks Back — and Forward (voiceofsandiego.org)
Judith Bennett's “'Lesbian-Like’ and the Social History of Lesbianisms" (2000)
Concept of "Lesbian-Like": Bennett introduces the term "lesbian-like" to describe the ambiguous and multifaceted nature of same-sex relationships in medieval and early modern Europe. She argues that the concept of lesbianism as a fixed identity did not exist during this period, and instead, same-sex desire and relationships were understood in fluid and variable terms.
Evidence from Legal and Religious Sources: Bennett examines legal and religious texts from medieval and early modern Europe to uncover attitudes towards same-sex behavior. She finds that while these sources often condemned sodomy and other forms of non-normative sexual behavior, they also acknowledged the existence of intimate and affectionate relationships between women without necessarily categorizing them as deviant or abnormal.
Social Context: Bennett situates her analysis within the broader social, cultural, and economic context of medieval and early modern Europe. She explores how factors such as gender roles, kinship networks, and religious beliefs shaped understandings of same-sex desire and relationships during this period.
Agency and Resistance: Bennett emphasizes the agency of women in navigating and negotiating their same-sex desires within the constraints of medieval and early modern society. She highlights instances of resistance and subversion, where women found ways to express their affection and desire for other women despite social and cultural prohibitions.
Fluidity of Identity: Bennett argues against imposing modern understandings of sexuality onto historical contexts and emphasizes the fluidity of identity categories such as "lesbian." She suggests that medieval and early modern Europeans had a more flexible understanding of sexual desire and relationships, which defied easy categorization.
Terry Castle's "The Literature of Lesbianism: A Historical Anthology from Ariosto to Stonewall" (2003)
Scope and Organization: Castle's anthology covers a wide range of literary works, including poetry, drama, novels, and essays, spanning centuries of literary history. The selections are organized chronologically, allowing readers to trace the evolution of representations of lesbian desire and identity over time.
Historical Context: Castle provides historical context for each selection, offering insights into the social, cultural, and political conditions that shaped attitudes towards lesbianism in different time periods. This contextualization helps readers understand how societal norms and expectations influenced the portrayal of lesbian relationships and identities in literature.
Diversity of Voices: The anthology includes works by a diverse array of authors, including both well-known figures and lesser-known voices. Castle highlights the contributions of women writers, as well as male authors who depicted lesbian themes in their work. This diversity of voices offers a multifaceted view of lesbianism in literature and challenges stereotypes and misconceptions.
Themes and Motifs: Castle identifies recurring themes and motifs in the literature of lesbianism, such as the trope of the "romantic friendship," the portrayal of same-sex desire within convents and other female-dominated spaces, and the use of coded language and imagery to represent lesbian relationships. She analyzes how these themes evolve over time and explores their significance within different cultural and literary contexts.
Legacy: Castle's anthology highlights the influence of earlier works on later writers and the ways in which representations of lesbianism in literature have both reflected and contributed to changing understandings of sexuality and gender identity. She traces the literary legacy of lesbian writers and examines how their work has shaped contemporary discussions of LGBTQ+ issues.
Marie Loughlin's “Literature: Representing Female Same-Sex Erotic Relationships and Desires” (2014)
Exploration of Female Same-Sex Desire: Loughlin examines how literature has depicted female same-sex desire across different time periods and cultural contexts. She explores the ways in which writers have represented the complexities of romantic and erotic relationships between women, considering both overt and covert depictions.
Historical Context: Loughlin provides historical context for the depiction of female same-sex desire in literature, tracing its evolution from ancient texts to contemporary works. She discusses how societal attitudes towards female homosexuality have influenced literary representations over time, highlighting the ways in which writers have navigated censorship, taboo, and changing cultural norms.
Analysis of Literary Techniques: Loughlin analyzes the literary techniques employed by authors to represent female same-sex desire, including imagery, symbolism, and narrative structure. She considers how writers have used language and metaphor to convey the intensity and complexity of lesbian relationships, as well as the challenges faced by queer women in expressing their desires.
Intersectional Perspectives: Loughlin examines the intersectionality of representations of female same-sex desire, considering how factors such as race, class, and gender identity intersect with sexuality in literature. She explores the ways in which authors have depicted the experiences of queer women from diverse backgrounds, highlighting the importance of intersectional perspectives in understanding the complexities of identity and desire.
Legacy: Loughlin discusses the representations of female same-sex desire, considering how these depictions have influenced subsequent writers and contributed to broader cultural conversations about sexuality and gender. She reflects on the ways in which literature both reflects and shapes societal attitudes towards queer women, offering insights into the power of storytelling in challenging norms and fostering understanding.
Rictor Norton's "Homosexuality in Eighteenth-Century England" (Last Updated in 2023)
Historical Context: Norton provides a detailed examination of the social, cultural, and legal landscape surrounding homosexuality in 18th-century England. He situates his analysis within the broader historical developments of the period, including the Enlightenment and the rise of bourgeois society.
Social Attitudes: Norton discusses prevailing social attitudes towards homosexuality during this time, emphasizing the complexity and diversity of experiences. He highlights how notions of sexuality were shaped by class, gender, and other intersecting identities, and how individuals navigated and negotiated their sexual desires within these constraints.
Literature and Culture: Norton explores representations of homosexuality in literature, art, and popular culture of the 18th century. He analyzes how various texts and cultural artifacts both reflected and contributed to the construction of homosexual identities and experiences during this period.
Legal and Medical Discourses: Norton examines the legal and medical discourses surrounding homosexuality in 18th-century England, including the emergence of new medical theories and legal frameworks for understanding and regulating sexuality. He discusses the ways in which these discourses intersected with broader social attitudes and practices.
Resistance and Subversion: Norton also highlights instances of resistance and subversion within 18th-century society, where individuals and communities challenged prevailing norms and expectations regarding sexuality. He discusses how marginalized groups, such as working-class communities and women, engaged in alternative forms of sexual expression and identity formation.
Homosexuality in Eighteenth-Century England (rictornorton.co.uk)